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Oct 30, 2023
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Introduction
Hematology means the study of the blood or hematopoietic
system in humans, which consists of several interconnected
components: the peripheral blood, the bone marrow, and the
lymph nodes. The circulating blood, consisting of some five
liters in a man (almost 10 percent less in a woman) comprises
a fluid component (the
plasma)
and makes up some 55 percent
of total blood volume. The plasma contains the three basic cell
types:
erythrocytes
(red cells),
leukocytes
(white cells),
and
thrombocytes
(platelets).
The
erythrocytes
are largely concerned with oxygen transport;
the
leukocytes
play various parts in defense against infection
and tissue injury; and the
thrombocytes
are involved in
maintaining the integrity of blood vessels and the prevention of
blood loss by helping the blood to clot.
An abnormal condition of blood is called blood
dyscrasia
or
disease. Diseases of red and white blood cells, bone marrow,
and disorders of blood clotting are examples of blood
dyscrasias.
Anemia, hemochromatosis
, and
polycythemia
vera
are diseases of red blood cells. Diseases of white blood
cells include
leukemia
and
granulocytosis
. Two disorders of
blood clotting are
hemophilia
and
purpura
.
Lymph
, the other main fluid in the body, does not circulate as
does the blood. Lymph travels in one direction through lymph
vessels, which drain into large veins of the circulatory system
situated in the neck region. Although lymph does not contain
erythrocytes or platelets, it does
contain
lymphocytes
and
monocytes
.
Lymph capillaries, lymphatic vessels, lymphatic ducts, and
lymph nodes form the lymphatic system. This system serves as
a drainage medium to transport needed proteins and fluid that
have leaked out of the blood capillaries back to the
bloodstream via the veins. In addition, the lymphatic vessels
absorb
lipids
(fats) from the small intestine and carry them to
the bloodstream. The lymphatic system also assists the
immune system in protecting the body by producing antibodies
or by engulfing and destroying foreign matter.
Though they are not specific parts of the lymphatic system,
the
spleen, faucial tonsils
, and
thymus
are closely related to it
by virtue of the functions they perform in the body. Of
particular importance is the thymus, which manufactures
infection-fighting
T cells
. These cells play a very important role
in the body’s immune response. T-cell lymphocytes also form in
stem cells in the bone marrow.
A practicing hematologist spends a great deal of time treating
patients suffering from blood malignancies. One of the most
common forms of blood tumor is lymph-node cancer
(Hodgkin
disease
and
non-Hodgkin lymphoma)
.
Oncology is a word derived from the Greek
onchos
, meaning a
lump or tumor.
Oncology
is the study of cancer.
An
oncologist
is a physician who specializes in the diagnosis
and treatment of cancer.
Cancer is a proliferation of cells that grow in an uncontrolled
manner, invading local tissues and spreading widely through
the blood or lymphatics to produce secondary deposits,
or
metastases
, in distant parts of the body. The cells
composing the tumor reproduce faster than normal cells. More
than 200 different types of cancer have been identified;
however, these different types can be divided into three main
groups based on the tissue from which the tumor cells
originate—carcinomas, sarcomas, and mixed-tissue tumors.
Carcinomas
comprise the largest group and are malignant
tumors that arise from the epithelial tissues that line internal
and external body surfaces. For example, lung carcinoma
arises from the epithelium lining the main airways, or bronchi;
breast carcinoma develops from the ductal tissue in the breast;
stomach and colon carcinomas originate from their epithelial
linings.
Sarcomas
develop from supportive and connective tissue such
as cartilage, bone, muscle, fat, and bone marrow, as well as
from cells of the lymph system. Another word for bone
sarcomas is osteosarcomas; fat sarcomas are called
liposarcomas. Sarcomas are commonly seen in children and
spread via the bloodstream, whereas carcinomas are more
commonly seen in adults and usually spread via the
lymphatics.
Mixed-tissue tumors
originate in tissue that can separate into
both epithelial and connective tissue. When cancer occurs
simultaneously in adjacent tissue types, it is known as a mixed-
tissue tumor.
The method of classifying tumors involves establishing the
tumor’s
grade
(degree of maturity) and its
stage
(extent of
metastasis) within the body. The aggressiveness of tumor
malignancy is classified using the Broders index on a scale of 1
to 4. A
grade 1
tumor indicates the most differentiation and
best prognosis, whereas a
grade 4
indicates the least
differentiation and poorest prognosis. Other classification
systems are used to describe malignancies in different parts of
the body; for example, Dukes A, B, and C are used to classify
the extent of operable adenocarcinoma of the colon or rectum,
and FIGO stages describe gynecologic malignancies,
particularly carcinomas of the ovary. FIGO stages are
expressed using roman numerals.
Although the evolution of a normal cell into a cancerous one is
not understood fully, the genetic material deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) of the cell holds the key. DNA contains genes
(codes) that direct the production of new cells. During cell
division, DNA replicates itself to pass the same genetic
material to two new cells. This process is called
mitosis
.
Sometimes during mitosis the process is disrupted because the
DNA stops making the codes that allow cells to function
normally. Instead, the cells begin to make new signals that
cause them to move and invade adjacent tissue
and
metastasize
or spread. These are malignant cells. As these
malignant cells reproduce, the
mutations
(cell changes) are
passed on to the new cells, and the process is replicated over
and over, leading to malignant growths.
Chemicals, drugs, radiation, and some viruses can cause DNA
changes that lead to cancer. Heredity can also predispose a
person to certain types of cancer. Although cancer occurs
frequently in the elderly, it can occur at any age and can affect
any body tissue.
Each type of cancer requires a specific type of therapy. The
four basic methods used to treat cancer are chemotherapy,
surgery, radiation therapy, and biological therapy. At times a
combination of these methods is used for the most effective
treatment plan.
Chemotherapy
employs drugs to treat cancer.
Chemotherapeutic agents fall into five classifications:
alkylating agents, antibiotics, antimetabolites, plant
derivatives, and steroids.
Surgery
removes the cancerous
tissue from the body through excision.
Radiation
therapy
involves the use of radiation to the tumor tissue; high
doses damage DNA.
Biological therapy
uses the body’s own
immune system to fight tumor cells.
As cancer research continues to be aggressively pursued, new
treatment methods continue to emerge. Research and
development being done all over the world plays the most
important role in finding new drugs and treatment methods to
not only help treat cancer but also to ultimately find a cure for
it.
Hematology/Oncology Abbreviations
The abbreviations, acronyms, and terms in the following
abbreviations and terminology sections are often dictated in
this specialty. We offer abbreviated definitions here. Please see
an unabridged medical dictionary or the suggested web sites in
this chapter for more information on each term.
adeno-
CA
adenocarcinoma
AHF
antihemophilic factor
ALL
acute lymphocytic leukemia
AML
acute myelogenous leukemia
AVM
arteriovenous malformation
BAC
blood-alcohol concentration
baso
basophils
BL
Burkitt lymphoma
BMT
bone-marrow transplant
CA
cancer or carcinoma
CEA
carcinoembryonic antigen
CFS
chronic fatigue syndrome
chemo
chemotherapy
CLL
chronic lymphocytic leukemia
CMF
cytoxan, methotrexate, 5-fluorouracil
(combination chemotherapy)
CML
chronic myelogenous (myelocytic) leukemia
CMV
cytomegalovirus
CR
complete response
DES
diethylstilbestrol
Dif
differential (count)
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid
eos
eosinophil(s)
ER
estrogen receptors
ESR
erythrocyte sedimentation rate
Ga
Gallium
Hct
hematocrit
HD
Hodgkin disease
Hgb, Hg
hemoglobin
Hp
haptoglobin
HTLV
human T-cell leukemia-lymphoma virus
IgA, IgD
immunoglobulin A, immunoglobulin D
IgE, IgG
immunoglobulin E, immunoglobulin G
IgM
immunoglobulin M
IL-2
interleukin-2
LAK
lymphokine-activated killer (cells)
LGV
lymphogranuloma venereum
lymphs
lymphocytes
MCH
mean corpuscular hemoglobin—average amount
of hemoglobin per cell
MCHC
mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration—
average concentration of hemoglobin in a single
red cell
MCL
mantle cell lymphoma
MCV
mean corpuscular volume—average volume or
size of a single red blood cell
mets
metastasis/metastases
NED
no evidence of disease
NHL
non-Hodgkin lymphoma
NSCLC
non-small-cell lung cancer
PCV
packed cell volume
PMN,
PMNL
polymorphonuclear neutrophil
poly
polymorphonuclear leukocyte
PR
partial remission
prot.
protocol
PSA
prostate-specific antigen
PT, pro
time
prothrombin time
PTT
partial thromboplastin time
R&D
research and development
Rh
Rhesus (factor)
RIA
radioimmunoassay
RNA
ribonucleic acid
sed rate
erythrocyte sedimentation rate
segs
segmented, mature white blood cells
TNF
tumor necrosis factor
TNM
tumor, node, metastasis
VIP
vasoactive intestinal peptides
WBRT
whole-brain radiation therapy
XRT
radiation therapy
YSC
yolk sac carcinoma
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Which of the following best describes blood plasma?
Group of answer choices
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found within the cells, not outside, so normally called interstitial
The sodium-potassium pump balances intracellular and extracellular ions by:
Group of answer choices
the use of ionic pressure
active transport of ions
creating osmotic pressure
employing hydrostatic pressure
What force drives fluid into lymphatic capillaries?
Group of answer choices
colloidal osmotic pressure
hydrostatic pressure
active transport of fluids
diffusion of water
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tion, which mixes quickly with the blood but dilutes it so that the hematocrit decreases as time
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Jugular vein
(also
subclavian
vein from
arms)
Pulmonary
artery
Superior
vena cava
Interior
vena cava
Hepatic
vein
Liver
Hepatic
portal vein
Renal vein
Iliac vein
CO₂
CO₂
Head and arms
Lungs
Heart
Kidneys
Trunk and legs
Carotid artery
(also
subclavian
artery to
arms)
Pulmonary
vein
Aorta
Hepatic
artery
Mesenteric
arteries
Digestive
tract
Renal artery
Iliac artery
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Anatomy and Physiology
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7
000000000
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31
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Subject: Anatomy and Physiology
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platelets
globulins
fibrinogen
erythrocytes
leukocytes
connective
plasma
fibrinogen
coagulation
albumin
men
women
formed elements
Blood is a
tissue that consists of formed elements and an extracellular matrix called
The formed
elements include red and white blood cells, and cell fragments called
Plasma: The fibers of the extracellular matrix are actually fiber precursor molecules called
Plasma consists of water, protein,
nutrients, electrolytes, wastes, hormones, and gases.
Plasma contains a multitude of proteins. However, three proteins predominate.
contributes towards blood viscosity and helps
transport lipophilic substances in the blood.
, otherwise known as antibodies, help combat specific pathogens. Finally, upon activation,
fibrinogen forms fibers during the process of
are cells and cell fragments found in the blood.
serve to transport gases in the blood.
are blood cells of the immune system that combat pathogens.
are cell fragments that assist in the
process of blood clot…
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platelets men fibrinogen leukocytes connective women globulins plasma fibrinogen coagulation albumin formed elements erythrocytes
Blood is a
Blank 1
tissue that consists of formed elements and an extracellular matrix called
Blank 2
. The formed elements include red and white blood cells, and cell fragments called
Blank 3
.
Plasma: The fibers of the extracellular matrix are actually fiber precursor molecules called
Blank 4
. Plasma consists of water, protein, nutrients, electrolytes, wastes, hormones, and gases.
Plasma contains a multitude of proteins. However, three proteins predominate.
Blank 5
contributes towards blood viscosity and helps transport lipophilic substances in the blood.
Blank 6
, otherwise known as antibodies, help combat specific pathogens. Finally, upon activation, fibrinogen forms fibers during the process of
Blank 7
.
arrow_forward
Show computation
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1. Assuming that the rate of RBC loss is proportional to the concentration of RBCs, determine the patient's concentration of RBCs by the end of the operation.
2. A procedure called acute normovolemic hemodilution (ANH) has been developed to minimize RBC loss during surgery. In this procedure blood is extracted from the patient before the operation and replaced with saline solution. This dilutes the patient's blood, resulting in fewer RBCs being lost during the…
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A3
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I'll rate positively , if you the answer is correct and completed
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The total number of 02 molecules that can be carried by one red blood cell is about a:
O One hundred (100) 02 molecules
One thousand (1000) 02 molecules
One million (1000,000) 02 molecules
One billion (1000,000,000) 02 molecules
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Yes, because it would help with blood clotting.
No, because it would help with blood clotting.
Yes, because it would lead to an increase in blood volume.
No, because it would lead to an increase in blood volume.
Yes, because it would decrease his blood pressure.
No, because it would decrease his blood pressure.
Yes, because since he doesn't have enough protein in his blood, you should add more.
No, because since he doesn't have enough protein in his blood, you should add more.
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Related Questions
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- As an undergraduate intern in psychiatric unit a patient requesting therapeutic marijuana asks you why his physician has recommended a close monitoring of blood cell components. Remembering you took notes on this in one of your neuroscience lectures, you respond that is because marijuana can affect not only cells in the brain but also brain blood circulation lymphocyte count in the blood erythrocyte count in the blood cells in the bone marrowarrow_forward1 paragraph describing the lead concept for blood pressure machines 1 paragraph indicating the concept’s regulatory pathway for blood pressure machines 1 paragraph with 5 regulatory questions you’d like to discuss for blood pressure machines conceptarrow_forwardHemodynamics are the dynamics of blood flow. Can the Bernoulli's equation be used to study hemodynamics in the cardiovascular system? Why or why not? You should discuss all four of the assumptions of Bernoulli's equation when answering this question. Jugular vein (also subclavian vein from arms) Pulmonary artery Superior vena cava Interior vena cava Hepatic vein Liver Hepatic portal vein Renal vein Iliac vein CO₂ CO₂ Head and arms Lungs Heart Kidneys Trunk and legs Carotid artery (also subclavian artery to arms) Pulmonary vein Aorta Hepatic artery Mesenteric arteries Digestive tract Renal artery Iliac arteryarrow_forward
- ! List three! components of blood which allow the blood to fulfill the role of protective tissue. ( I was wondering if was in connection with the Coagulation process, and might be The fibrin,thrombin and prothrombinase?) please just for my better understanding could you also say why or why not whilst answering the question by listing 3arrow_forwardAnatomy and Physiology 1) In the clinical setting, how do we actually determine someone’s blood type? When somebody needs a blood transfusion, the clinician needs to find out what theirblood type is to make sure they get the right type. How? You can figure this out. I’mgoing to give you all of the information you need, and then you are going to predict howblood types are assessed in the clinic.First, you need to know that when antibodies attack RBC, the reaction creates clumping,called agglutination. This is a visible reaction- you can see it happen!Next, you need to know that to determine somebody’s blood type, the clinician has a vialof antibodies that attack A (called anti-A), a vial with antibodies that attack B (anti-B),and… I know you know where this is going… a vial with antibodies that attack Rh (guesswhat that’s called!). And, of course, they have a sample of the person’s blood.Okay! Come up with a hypothesis about how you could do this. Just try to figureout how it could be…arrow_forwardIn hematology laboratory, automation has been the ongoing trend in terms of cell sorting and identification. Do you think it is about time to phase out the manual method of blood cell counting and identification in this area? Why or why not?arrow_forward
- In a woman with body mass 70 kg blood quantity is 4.9 liters; hematocrit is 32%, the quantity of erythrocytes is 3.0*10^12/l, hemoglobin is 105 g/l color parameter is 1.0, the minimum osmotic resistance of erythrocytes is 0.38%NaCl; the maximum osmotic resistance of erythrocytes is 0.34%NaCl Such blood analises testifies first of all about: A. the water excess in the organism B. the lack of water in the organism C. osmotic hemolysis of erythrocytes D. chemical hemolysis of erythrocytes E. the lack of iron in blood plasmaarrow_forwardBackground: The hematocrit of whole blood is the percent of the blood (by volume) that is made up of cells. For example, if a person has a hematocrit of 40, it means that 40% of the blood volume is cells and the rest is plasma. The average hematocrit of a normal human male is 42 and 38 for a normal human female. The degree of bodily activity, anaemia, as well as altitude, are among some factors that affect hematocrits. calculation to get the % red blood cells (RBC): RBC present over total liquid x 100 The tubes in the image were all centrifuged at maximum speed for 5 minutes. Describe your observations of the hypo-, iso-, and hypertonic hematocrit tubes. Also calculate the % volume of red blood cells in each tube.arrow_forwardA British MI-6 secret agent presents to the emergency department after being poisoned while out on a mission. Laboratory tests reveal a serious cardiac arrhythmia and high blood levels of a cardiac glycoside agent. The attending physician orders the immediate administration of a drug that can chemically antagonize the toxic agent. Which of the following drugs is most likely being administered to this patient for this purpose? O Atropine immune Fab O Sodium nitroprusside O Verapamil anti-immune O Pralidoxime O Digoxin immune Fabarrow_forward
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